| IntroductionWith increased globalization people | | | | nurturing of innovation and making skills. These |
| have seen the need to increase wealth creation | | | | involve designing, innovating, communicating in |
| especially within the underdeveloped Third World. | | | | groups, problem solving, face-to-face |
| It has also become evident that neither the | | | | communication, idea generation and group-work |
| government nor the formal sector can supply the | | | | (Ali, 2001:41). Brown and Duguid (1991) quoted by |
| necessary job creation without a sustained effort | | | | Ali (2001:342) make use of the expression |
| and partnerships between all sectors of the | | | | "communities of practice" to describe the social |
| economy. One means of creating work | | | | context for developing work, learning and |
| opportunities will be the development of | | | | innovation. Lin, Li and Chen (2004:4) and Markman |
| entrepreneurial and innovative skills within the | | | | and Baron (2003:291) make use of the term |
| country. The creation of such job opportunities by | | | | "social capital" to describe the ability to establish |
| encouraging entrepreneurial innovation has been | | | | networks of supporting relationships. This ability is |
| well illustrated by Dana, Korot and Tovstiga | | | | seen as a means of mobilizing environmental |
| (2005:12) in Silicon Valley, Israel, Singapore and the | | | | resources to overcome obstacles and threats |
| Netherlands. These authors report that in the | | | | within the entrepreneurial process. Others have |
| narrow 35 mile by 10 mile corridor within Silicon | | | | noted how important social capital is in the |
| Valley 6,500 technology enterprises are located. | | | | creation of new business ventures. Lin, et al. |
| Singapore is home to almost 100,000 | | | | (2004:4) recognize the need for formal and |
| entrepreneurs and had a per capita GDP of | | | | informal funding relationships within the business |
| US$42,948.00 during 2004 and an annual growth | | | | environment. Such entrepreneurs are termed |
| rate of 8.8% (Singapore Statistics, 2006).In | | | | "business angels" for they gain access to required |
| addition higher education has become a prime | | | | resources, such as capital investors, suitable |
| export commodity of total world services trade, | | | | distributors and talented employees from the |
| amounting to a staggering 3% (Grundling & | | | | external environment. Lin, et al. (2004:6) thus |
| Steynberg, 2006:5). With the increased interest in | | | | regard social capital as "entrepreneurial social |
| entrepreneurial innovation as an economic driver | | | | infrastructure". Harris, Forbes and Fletcher |
| there is a need to develop expertise within this | | | | (2000:125-126) suggest that planning "dampens" |
| area. Thus there is a need to develop | | | | the entrepreneurial spirit and that emergent |
| entrepreneurial innovation knowledge within higher | | | | problems tended to be better training triggers |
| education institutions to ensure the maintenance | | | | than planned approaches. It is proposed that the |
| of a competitive edge in an under developed | | | | learning style for entrepreneurs should be one |
| market. Dana, et al. (2005:10) define knowledge as | | | | using facilitators, learning by doing, interactive |
| "the integration of information, ideas, experience, | | | | classroom approaches, peer group work, problem |
| intuition, skills and lessons learned that creates | | | | solving, grasping opportunities and holistic |
| added value for a firm". In addition Dana et el. | | | | approaches. It is recommended that inputs should |
| (2005) define innovation as "the process by which | | | | be made by outside speakers and entrepreneurs |
| knowledge is transformed into new or significantly | | | | (Harris, et al., 2000:126). Johnson (1987:31, in Harris |
| modified products and/or services that establish | | | | et al., 2000) states that an entrepreneur's planned |
| the firm's competitive edge". It can thus be seen | | | | approach to any problem should be problem |
| that it is imperative that higher education in South | | | | awareness, problem diagnosis, the development |
| Africa actively pursue a policy to encourage | | | | of solutions and the selection of a solution. Once |
| entrepreneurial innovation to ensure the creation | | | | again the need for "an emergent" approach rather |
| of expertise, the development of new industries | | | | than a "planned approach" is emphasized. In |
| and the empowering of students to establish | | | | addition, Harris, et al. (2000:133) emphasize the |
| themselves within an entrepreneurial innovative | | | | need for long standing close relationships in the |
| culture. Higher education will be required to | | | | development of the entrepreneur. Such partners |
| become a key player in domesticating knowledge | | | | can share vision, and serve as sounding boards |
| and diffusing it into the economy in order to | | | | for ideas and concerns. These relationships are |
| serve as engines for community development | | | | vital for the development of innovative thinking. |
| and social renewal (Grundling & Steynberg, | | | | The findings suggest that entrepreneurs must be |
| 2006:6).Problem statementThe research question | | | | trained in a less structured way, which involve |
| under discussion is formulated as What minimum | | | | group work, class discussions, specialist input, a |
| requirements should be set in an entrepreneurial | | | | concentration of social skills, communicating and |
| and innovation framework in order to support | | | | conflict management. The methodology must |
| entrepreneurial and innovation knowledge creation | | | | involve face to face contact and the developing |
| at institutions of higher education?PurposeThis | | | | of lasting relationships.Another factor that should |
| article attempts to develop a framework to | | | | be written into the curriculum is the ability to deal |
| encourage entrepreneurial thinking within a higher | | | | with problems that arise and then to reschedule |
| education environment, taking into account | | | | goals so as to accommodate the new situation. |
| consideration policy and infrastructural | | | | This is clearly illustrated by Ireland, Kuratko and |
| requirements, knowledge creation fundamentals | | | | Morris (2006:12) showing the presence of internal |
| and institutional arrangements.Policy | | | | and external triggers of corporate |
| interventionPolicy initiatives within higher education | | | | entrepreneurship. External triggers that encourage |
| institutions are essential to establish guidance for | | | | entrepreneurship arise from developments in the |
| entrepreneurs, funding agencies, industry, labour in | | | | external environment. These include diminishing |
| general and for students and institutions of higher | | | | opportunities, rapid changes in technology, labour |
| education in particular. From a higher education | | | | shortages, aggressive moves by competitors, |
| perspective government as well as institutional | | | | change in the market structure or regulatory |
| policy requirements will be discussed in | | | | threats. Internal triggers include employee |
| brief.·Government policiesIf this is to be | | | | rewards, directives from managers, tension |
| accomplished it will require government | | | | between staff, problems with cost control, etc. |
| intervention to construct policies which should | | | | Ireland, et al. (2006:12). Triggers for |
| include the reduction of taxation in the form of | | | | entrepreneurship may be summed up in the |
| capital gains tax rate, providing incentives for | | | | statement "necessity is the mother of invention". |
| increased spending on research and development, | | | | This once again emphasis the need for trainers to |
| encouraging active venture capital markets, an | | | | concentrate on the entrepreneurial process rather |
| alteration of the 'hiring and firing' labour regulations, | | | | than the content, with particular emphasis on |
| and encouraging the spending on new technology | | | | change, the unexpected and resolving problems |
| shares (Da Rin, Nicodano & Sembenelli, | | | | that emerge within any particular |
| 2005:8).·The higher education institution | | | | process.Markman and Baron (2003:288) regard |
| policiesThe higher education institution must | | | | self-efficacy as an important success factor in |
| provide a working atmosphere in which | | | | developing entrepreneurs. Self-efficacy is defined |
| entrepreneurship can thrive. Venkataraman | | | | as "the extent to which persons believe that they |
| (2003:154) proposes that it is not merely the | | | | can organize effectively, execute actions to |
| injection of capital that enhances the development | | | | produce given attainments" (Bandura, 1997 quoted |
| of entrepreneurship. Rather, it is the tangible | | | | by Markman and Baron 2003:288). Successful |
| infrastructural essentials such as capital markets, | | | | entrepreneurs will have high self-efficacy and tend |
| advanced telecommunications, sound legal and | | | | to believe that their actions will lead to a |
| transportation systems. In addition, intangible | | | | successful venture. It is also suggested that |
| components must be in place. These intangibles | | | | entrepreneurs need to recognize opportunities |
| are access to novel ideas, informal forums, role | | | | from possible businesses. In addition it is |
| models, region specific opportunities, access to | | | | suggested that entrepreneurs need perseverance |
| large markets, safety nets and executive | | | | and need to be able to overcome adversity and |
| leadership. As policy within the institution is | | | | uncertainty. The curriculum should thus contain |
| developed it must consider and include a planning | | | | training on self esteem, reliability, perseverance, |
| process to accommodate these essentials.Policy | | | | overcoming setbacks, having a vision, setting |
| must also augment the entrepreneurial culture | | | | goals and rescheduling if things go |
| within the higher education institution as a new | | | | wrong.Boussouara and Deakins (1999:204) suggest |
| mindset of students must be established from | | | | that a gradual approach into a high technology |
| one of expecting to be employed, to one of | | | | business can be an advantage in that it allows |
| providing work opportunities for others. | | | | time to develop contacts, strategy, and networks |
| Technology licensing offices (TLOs) must be | | | | as well as gives time to acquire funding and |
| established at the higher education institutions. | | | | income. The latter authors emphasize the need to |
| Stanford University sponsored research | | | | acquire market-based knowledge for a successful |
| expenditures of US$391 million generated 25 TLO | | | | business (Boussouara & Deakins, 1999:205). It is |
| start ups in 1997 (Gregorio & Shane, 2003:209). | | | | thus recommended that networks and external |
| An investment in patent rights by the higher | | | | business agents present relevant market research |
| education institutions will ensure future capital | | | | to the trainees. These findings should be |
| investments into the institution. Intellectual | | | | brainstormed and shared in the larger |
| property (IP) policies should be framed so as to | | | | group.ConclusionIn this article an attempt has been |
| capture the wealth generated and to distribute it | | | | made to develop a framework for the |
| equitably between investors, partners, the | | | | development of entrepreneurial thinking within a |
| university and the entrepreneur. Such rewards will | | | | higher education environment. This framework |
| generate future interest for both the investors | | | | needs to be supported by government policy |
| and the entrepreneurs. Policies, procedures and | | | | initiatives and include taxation incentives for |
| network contacts to capture venture capital must | | | | entrepreneurs, encouraging investment in research |
| be established.Research and Development policies | | | | and development, incentives for industry for |
| in entrepreneurship must be refined and focused. | | | | active venture capital and alterations to the labour |
| Currently, the focus of entrepreneurial research at | | | | law to accommodate small entrepreneurial |
| Tshwane University of Technology in South Africa | | | | industries. In addition techno-parks should be |
| falls within the three niche areas of business | | | | developed in conjunction with government to |
| clustering, business development and management | | | | expose students to the entrepreneurial |
| of innovation. In each of these niche areas it will | | | | culture.Research should be done within the |
| be necessary to develop Masters and Doctorate | | | | business development niche area to investigate |
| programmes in entrepreneurship and innovation. | | | | these policies and communicate the needs to |
| This in turn will mean a need for the improvement | | | | government. If government officials are |
| of the staff qualification profile within these areas. | | | | participating in the knowledge node it might |
| Along with the Masters and Doctorate | | | | provide the necessary exposure to |
| programmes, accredited research outputs must | | | | government.Policy initiatives from within the higher |
| be produced in entrepreneurship and innovation | | | | education institution should establish the knowledge |
| (Grundling & Steynberg, 2006:6). In addition to the | | | | node which should include academic specialists, |
| Masters degrees in Entrepreneurship and the | | | | research foundations, relevant government |
| Masters degree in Comparative Local | | | | officials, industrial partners, specialists from |
| Development, a Masters degree in Cognitive | | | | industry, foreign investors, community forums, |
| Reasoning should be considered for the future. | | | | labour unions, funding agencies, students and |
| Such a course should include a thorough | | | | potential entrepreneurs. Information networks |
| foundation in finance reasoning along with creative | | | | connecting entrepreneurs to venture capitalists |
| thinking and business planning.Institutional | | | | should be established within this knowledge node. |
| structures to be establishedThe higher education | | | | Intellectual Property policies should be developed |
| institution will have to establish itself as a seamless | | | | by the business development niche area to |
| knowledge node into which a variety of parties | | | | ensure that possible TLO start-ups within the |
| can contribute. Parties contributing to such a | | | | higher education institution are protected and that |
| knowledge node might include industrial partners, | | | | patenting, marketing or other up-front costs are |
| specialists from industry, relevant government | | | | paid by the higher education institution or |
| agencies, foreign investors, community forums, | | | | associated enterprises. The higher education |
| labour unions, academic specialists, research | | | | institution could liaise with the Innovation Hub |
| foundations, funding agencies, students and | | | | established in conjunction with the CSIR. A |
| potential entrepreneurs. Such a node would | | | | cooperation agreement could benefit both parties. |
| provide the necessary contact between | | | | Research should be carried out by the business |
| entrepreneurs, funding agencies, industry and | | | | clustering niche area to select the most |
| labour. This will ensure exposure of research and | | | | appropriate combinations and networking within |
| innovative ideas to the relevant parties. It would | | | | the knowledge node.To ensure intellectual |
| also provide a relevant export/import platform | | | | eminence the correct researchers, academics and |
| for entrepreneurship within the country. In addition | | | | industrialists should be chosen within the |
| to this, regular colloquia should be held to allow | | | | entrepreneurship cluster. Incubators and TLOs |
| potential entrepreneurs to expose their innovative | | | | should be founded to "ripen' developing |
| ideas to the funding agencies. An information | | | | technologies and to form small innovative |
| network connecting entrepreneurs to venture | | | | industries. Research within this area could be done |
| capitalists should be established within this | | | | by the niche areas business development and |
| knowledge node.Such forums would allow industrial | | | | management of innovation.A funding agency for |
| partners to present commercially-oriented | | | | the entrepreneurship innovation (previously |
| research proposals to the higher education | | | | termed the institutional foundation) could be |
| institution which funding agencies in turn would be | | | | located close to the industry partners for |
| willing to fund. Gregorio and Shane (2003:212) also | | | | fundraising. All three niche areas should be actively |
| emphasize the need for the higher education | | | | networked with industries on an ongoing basis, |
| institution to demonstrate intellectual eminence. It | | | | communicating needs and proposals.A teaching |
| is suggested that better quality researchers are | | | | strategy should be developed to foster tacit |
| more likely to exploit inventions than lesser | | | | knowledge development. Group work, problem |
| qualified researchers. The intellectual eminence also | | | | solving, idea generation, innovating, designing and |
| makes it easier for researchers involved to start | | | | face to face communication should be extensively |
| enterprises and to exploit their inventions | | | | used. Smaller classrooms need to be utilized |
| (Gregorio & Shane, 2003:212). In addition, more | | | | allowing for group work. Curricula should include |
| eminent researchers provide a better knowledge | | | | topics like self efficacy, perseverance and the |
| base and this in turn will attract better qualified | | | | need to overcome adversity. In addition |
| researchers and students. To ensure an intellectual | | | | market-based knowledge should be presented by |
| eminence of their outputs, higher education | | | | specialists from the industry on an ongoing basis. |
| institutions should select students carefully.The | | | | Networking should be a normal part of the |
| higher education institution should also encourage | | | | curriculum and will allow venture capitalists to be |
| the development of incubators, either close to the | | | | connected to the innovations developed within the |
| institution or close to the involved industry. This | | | | knowledge node.If South Africa and institutions of |
| will certainly influence the start up capital | | | | higher education do not see the need to develop |
| expenditure. Gregorio and Shane (2003:213) | | | | entrepreneurship within all communities, people |
| suggest that such incubators would allow | | | | may be delegated to a life of poverty, with no |
| entrepreneurs to "ripen" technologies in close | | | | opportunity to work or to develop South Africa's |
| proximity to inventors and specialists.The | | | | rich natural resources for future |
| establishment of technology parks could be | | | | generations.ReferencesALI, Y. 2001. The intranet |
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| routine in nature and infrastructure supporting the | | | | |