| IntroductionWith increased globalization
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| | nature and infrastructure supporting the
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| people have seen the need to increase
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| | nurturing of innovation and making
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| wealth creation especially within the
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| | skills. These involve designing,
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| underdeveloped Third World. It has also
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| | innovating, communicating in groups,
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| become evident that neither the
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| | problem solving, face-to-face
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| government nor the formal sector can
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| | communication, idea generation and
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| supply the necessary job creation without
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| | group-work (Ali, 2001:41). Brown and
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| a sustained effort and partnerships
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| | Duguid (1991) quoted by Ali (2001:342)
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| between all sectors of the economy. One
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| | make use of the expression "communities
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| means of creating work opportunities will
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| | of practice" to describe the social
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| be the development of entrepreneurial and
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| | context for developing work, learning and
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| innovative skills within the country.
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| | innovation. Lin, Li and Chen (2004:4)
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| The creation of such job opportunities by
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| | and Markman and Baron (2003:291) make use
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| encouraging entrepreneurial innovation
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| | of the term "social capital" to describe
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| has been well illustrated by Dana, Korot
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| | the ability to establish networks of
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| and Tovstiga (2005:12) in Silicon Valley,
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| | supporting relationships. This ability
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| Israel, Singapore and the Netherlands.
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| | is seen as a means of mobilizing
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| These authors report that in the narrow
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| | environmental resources to overcome
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| 35 mile by 10 mile corridor within
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| | obstacles and threats within the
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| Silicon Valley 6,500 technology
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| | entrepreneurial process. Others have
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| enterprises are located. Singapore is
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| | noted how important social capital is in
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| home to almost 100,000 entrepreneurs and
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| | the creation of new business ventures.
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| had a per capita GDP of US$42,948.00
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| | Lin, et al. (2004:4) recognize the need
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| during 2004 and an annual growth rate of
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| | for formal and informal funding
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| 8.8% (Singapore Statistics, 2006).In
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| | relationships within the business
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| addition higher education has become a
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| | environment. Such entrepreneurs are
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| prime export commodity of total world
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| | termed "business angels" for they gain
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| services trade, amounting to a staggering
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| | access to required resources, such as
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| 3% (Grundling & Steynberg, 2006:5). With
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| | capital investors, suitable distributors
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| the increased interest in entrepreneurial
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| | and talented employees from the external
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| innovation as an economic driver there is
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| | environment. Lin, et al. (2004:6) thus
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| a need to develop expertise within this
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| | regard social capital as "entrepreneurial
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| area. Thus there is a need to develop
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| | social infrastructure". Harris, Forbes
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| entrepreneurial innovation knowledge
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| | and Fletcher (2000:125-126) suggest that
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| within higher education institutions to
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| | planning "dampens" the entrepreneurial
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| ensure the maintenance of a competitive
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| | spirit and that emergent problems tended
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| edge in an under developed market. Dana,
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| | to be better training triggers than
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| et al. (2005:10) define knowledge as "the
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| | planned approaches. It is proposed that
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| integration of information, ideas,
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| | the learning style for entrepreneurs
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| experience, intuition, skills and lessons
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| | should be one using facilitators,
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| learned that creates added value for a
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| | learning by doing, interactive classroom
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| firm". In addition Dana et el. (2005)
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| | approaches, peer group work, problem
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| define innovation as "the process by
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| | solving, grasping opportunities and
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| which knowledge is transformed into new
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| | holistic approaches. It is recommended
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| or significantly modified products and/or
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| | that inputs should be made by outside
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| services that establish the firm's
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| | speakers and entrepreneurs (Harris, et
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| competitive edge". It can thus be seen
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| | al., 2000:126). Johnson (1987:31, in
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| that it is imperative that higher
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| | Harris et al., 2000) states that an
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| education in South Africa actively pursue
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| | entrepreneur's planned approach to any
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| a policy to encourage entrepreneurial
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| | problem should be problem awareness,
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| innovation to ensure the creation of
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| | problem diagnosis, the development of
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| expertise, the development of new
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| | solutions and the selection of a
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| industries and the empowering of students
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| | solution. Once again the need for "an
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| to establish themselves within an
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| | emergent" approach rather than a "planned
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| entrepreneurial innovative culture.
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| | approach" is emphasized. In addition,
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| Higher education will be required to
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| | Harris, et al. (2000:133) emphasize the
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| become a key player in domesticating
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| | need for long standing close
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| knowledge and diffusing it into the
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| | relationships in the development of the
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| economy in order to serve as engines for
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| | entrepreneur. Such partners can share
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| community development and social renewal
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| | vision, and serve as sounding boards for
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| (Grundling & Steynberg, 2006:6).Problem
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| | ideas and concerns. These relationships
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| statementThe research question under
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| | are vital for the development of
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| discussion is formulated as What minimum
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| | innovative thinking. The findings
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| requirements should be set in an
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| | suggest that entrepreneurs must be
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| entrepreneurial and innovation framework
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| | trained in a less structured way, which
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| in order to support entrepreneurial and
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| | involve group work, class discussions,
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| innovation knowledge creation at
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| | specialist input, a concentration of
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| institutions of higher
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| | social skills, communicating and conflict
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| education?PurposeThis article attempts to
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| | management. The methodology must involve
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| develop a framework to encourage
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| | face to face contact and the developing
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| entrepreneurial thinking within a higher
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| | of lasting relationships.Another factor
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| education environment, taking into
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| | that should be written into the
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| account consideration policy and
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| | curriculum is the ability to deal with
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| infrastructural requirements, knowledge
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| | problems that arise and then to
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| creation fundamentals and institutional
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| | reschedule goals so as to accommodate the
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| arrangements.Policy interventionPolicy
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| | new situation. This is clearly
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| initiatives within higher education
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| | illustrated by Ireland, Kuratko and
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| institutions are essential to establish
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| | Morris (2006:12) showing the presence of
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| guidance for entrepreneurs, funding
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| | internal and external triggers of
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| agencies, industry, labour in general and
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| | corporate entrepreneurship. External
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| for students and institutions of higher
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| | triggers that encourage entrepreneurship
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| education in particular. From a higher
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| | arise from developments in the external
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| education perspective government as well
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| | environment. These include diminishing
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| as institutional policy requirements will
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| | opportunities, rapid changes in
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| be discussed in brief.·Government
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| | technology, labour shortages, aggressive
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| policiesIf this is to be accomplished it
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| | moves by competitors, change in the
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| will require government intervention to
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| | market structure or regulatory threats.
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| construct policies which should include
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| | Internal triggers include employee
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| the reduction of taxation in the form of
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| | rewards, directives from managers,
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| capital gains tax rate, providing
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| | tension between staff, problems with cost
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| incentives for increased spending on
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| | control, etc. Ireland, et al. (2006:12).
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| research and development, encouraging
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| | Triggers for entrepreneurship may be
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| active venture capital markets, an
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| | summed up in the statement "necessity is
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| alteration of the 'hiring and firing'
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| | the mother of invention". This once
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| labour regulations, and encouraging the
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| | again emphasis the need for trainers to
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| spending on new technology shares (Da
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| | concentrate on the entrepreneurial
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| Rin, Nicodano & Sembenelli, 2005:8).·The
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| | process rather than the content, with
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| higher education institution policiesThe
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| | particular emphasis on change, the
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| higher education institution must provide
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| | unexpected and resolving problems that
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| a working atmosphere in which
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| | emerge within any particular
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| entrepreneurship can thrive.
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| | process.Markman and Baron (2003:288)
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| Venkataraman (2003:154) proposes that it
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| | regard self-efficacy as an important
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| is not merely the injection of capital
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| | success factor in developing
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| that enhances the development of
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| | entrepreneurs. Self-efficacy is defined
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| entrepreneurship. Rather, it is the
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| | as "the extent to which persons believe
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| tangible infrastructural essentials such
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| | that they can organize effectively,
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| as capital markets, advanced
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| | execute actions to produce given
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| telecommunications, sound legal and
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| | attainments" (Bandura, 1997 quoted by
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| transportation systems. In addition,
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| | Markman and Baron 2003:288). Successful
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| intangible components must be in place.
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| | entrepreneurs will have high
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| These intangibles are access to novel
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| | self-efficacy and tend to believe that
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| ideas, informal forums, role models,
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| | their actions will lead to a successful
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| region specific opportunities, access to
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| | venture. It is also suggested that
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| large markets, safety nets and executive
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| | entrepreneurs need to recognize
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| leadership. As policy within the
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| | opportunities from possible businesses.
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| institution is developed it must consider
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| | In addition it is suggested that
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| and include a planning process to
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| | entrepreneurs need perseverance and need
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| accommodate these essentials.Policy must
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| | to be able to overcome adversity and
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| also augment the entrepreneurial culture
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| | uncertainty. The curriculum should thus
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| within the higher education institution
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| | contain training on self esteem,
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| as a new mindset of students must be
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| | reliability, perseverance, overcoming
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| established from one of expecting to be
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| | setbacks, having a vision, setting goals
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| employed, to one of providing work
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| | and rescheduling if things go
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| opportunities for others. Technology
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| | wrong.Boussouara and Deakins (1999:204)
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| licensing offices (TLOs) must be
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| | suggest that a gradual approach into a
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| established at the higher education
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| | high technology business can be an
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| institutions. Stanford University
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| | advantage in that it allows time to
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| sponsored research expenditures of US$391
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| | develop contacts, strategy, and networks
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| million generated 25 TLO start ups in
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| | as well as gives time to acquire funding
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| 1997 (Gregorio & Shane, 2003:209). An
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| | and income. The latter authors emphasize
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| investment in patent rights by the higher
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| | the need to acquire market-based
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| education institutions will ensure future
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| | knowledge for a successful business
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| capital investments into the institution.
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| | (Boussouara & Deakins, 1999:205). It is
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| Intellectual property (IP) policies
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| | thus recommended that networks and
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| should be framed so as to capture the
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| | external business agents present relevant
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| wealth generated and to distribute it
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| | market research to the trainees. These
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| equitably between investors, partners,
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| | findings should be brainstormed and
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| the university and the entrepreneur.
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| | shared in the larger group.ConclusionIn
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| Such rewards will generate future
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| | this article an attempt has been made to
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| interest for both the investors and the
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| | develop a framework for the development
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| entrepreneurs. Policies, procedures and
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| | of entrepreneurial thinking within a
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| network contacts to capture venture
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| | higher education environment. This
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| capital must be established.Research and
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| | framework needs to be supported by
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| Development policies in entrepreneurship
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| | government policy initiatives and include
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| must be refined and focused. Currently,
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| | taxation incentives for entrepreneurs,
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| the focus of entrepreneurial research at
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| | encouraging investment in research and
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| Tshwane University of Technology in South
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| | development, incentives for industry for
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| Africa falls within the three niche areas
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| | active venture capital and alterations to
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| of business clustering, business
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| | the labour law to accommodate small
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| development and management of innovation.
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| | entrepreneurial industries. In addition
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| In each of these niche areas it will be
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| | techno-parks should be developed in
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| necessary to develop Masters and
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| | conjunction with government to expose
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| Doctorate programmes in entrepreneurship
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| | students to the entrepreneurial
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| and innovation. This in turn will mean a
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| | culture.Research should be done within
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| need for the improvement of the staff
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| | the business development niche area to
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| qualification profile within these areas.
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| | investigate these policies and
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| Along with the Masters and Doctorate
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| | communicate the needs to government. If
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| programmes, accredited research outputs
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| | government officials are participating in
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| must be produced in entrepreneurship and
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| | the knowledge node it might provide the
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| innovation (Grundling & Steynberg,
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| | necessary exposure to government.Policy
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| 2006:6). In addition to the Masters
| |
| | initiatives from within the higher
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| degrees in Entrepreneurship and the
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| | education institution should establish
|
| Masters degree in Comparative Local
| |
| | the knowledge node which should include
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| Development, a Masters degree in
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| | academic specialists, research
|
| Cognitive Reasoning should be considered
| |
| | foundations, relevant government
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| for the future. Such a course should
| |
| | officials, industrial partners,
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| include a thorough foundation in finance
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| | specialists from industry, foreign
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| reasoning along with creative thinking
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| | investors, community forums, labour
|
| and business planning.Institutional
| |
| | unions, funding agencies, students and
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| structures to be establishedThe higher
| |
| | potential entrepreneurs. Information
|
| education institution will have to
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| | networks connecting entrepreneurs to
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| establish itself as a seamless knowledge
| |
| | venture capitalists should be established
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| node into which a variety of parties can
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| | within this knowledge node. Intellectual
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| contribute. Parties contributing to such
| |
| | Property policies should be developed by
|
| a knowledge node might include industrial
| |
| | the business development niche area to
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| partners, specialists from industry,
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| | ensure that possible TLO start-ups within
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| relevant government agencies, foreign
| |
| | the higher education institution are
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| investors, community forums, labour
| |
| | protected and that patenting, marketing
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| unions, academic specialists, research
| |
| | or other up-front costs are paid by the
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| foundations, funding agencies, students
| |
| | higher education institution or
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| and potential entrepreneurs. Such a node
| |
| | associated enterprises. The higher
|
| would provide the necessary contact
| |
| | education institution could liaise with
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| between entrepreneurs, funding agencies,
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| | the Innovation Hub established in
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| industry and labour. This will ensure
| |
| | conjunction with the CSIR. A cooperation
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| exposure of research and innovative ideas
| |
| | agreement could benefit both parties.
|
| to the relevant parties. It would also
| |
| | Research should be carried out by the
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| provide a relevant export/import platform
| |
| | business clustering niche area to select
|
| for entrepreneurship within the country.
| |
| | the most appropriate combinations and
|
| In addition to this, regular colloquia
| |
| | networking within the knowledge node.To
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| should be held to allow potential
| |
| | ensure intellectual eminence the correct
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| entrepreneurs to expose their innovative
| |
| | researchers, academics and industrialists
|
| ideas to the funding agencies. An
| |
| | should be chosen within the
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| information network connecting
| |
| | entrepreneurship cluster. Incubators and
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| entrepreneurs to venture capitalists
| |
| | TLOs should be founded to "ripen'
|
| should be established within this
| |
| | developing technologies and to form small
|
| knowledge node.Such forums would allow
| |
| | innovative industries. Research within
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| industrial partners to present
| |
| | this area could be done by the niche
|
| commercially-oriented research proposals
| |
| | areas business development and management
|
| to the higher education institution which
| |
| | of innovation.A funding agency for the
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| funding agencies in turn would be willing
| |
| | entrepreneurship innovation (previously
|
| to fund. Gregorio and Shane (2003:212)
| |
| | termed the institutional foundation)
|
| also emphasize the need for the higher
| |
| | could be located close to the industry
|
| education institution to demonstrate
| |
| | partners for fundraising. All three
|
| intellectual eminence. It is suggested
| |
| | niche areas should be actively networked
|
| that better quality researchers are more
| |
| | with industries on an ongoing basis,
|
| likely to exploit inventions than lesser
| |
| | communicating needs and proposals.A
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| qualified researchers. The intellectual
| |
| | teaching strategy should be developed to
|
| eminence also makes it easier for
| |
| | foster tacit knowledge development.
|
| researchers involved to start enterprises
| |
| | Group work, problem solving, idea
|
| and to exploit their inventions (Gregorio
| |
| | generation, innovating, designing and
|
| & Shane, 2003:212). In addition, more
| |
| | face to face communication should be
|
| eminent researchers provide a better
| |
| | extensively used. Smaller classrooms
|
| knowledge base and this in turn will
| |
| | need to be utilized allowing for group
|
| attract better qualified researchers and
| |
| | work. Curricula should include topics
|
| students. To ensure an intellectual
| |
| | like self efficacy, perseverance and the
|
| eminence of their outputs, higher
| |
| | need to overcome adversity. In addition
|
| education institutions should select
| |
| | market-based knowledge should be
|
| students carefully.The higher education
| |
| | presented by specialists from the
|
| institution should also encourage the
| |
| | industry on an ongoing basis. Networking
|
| development of incubators, either close
| |
| | should be a normal part of the curriculum
|
| to the institution or close to the
| |
| | and will allow venture capitalists to be
|
| involved industry. This will certainly
| |
| | connected to the innovations developed
|
| influence the start up capital
| |
| | within the knowledge node.If South Africa
|
| expenditure. Gregorio and Shane
| |
| | and institutions of higher education do
|
| (2003:213) suggest that such incubators
| |
| | not see the need to develop
|
| would allow entrepreneurs to "ripen"
| |
| | entrepreneurship within all communities,
|
| technologies in close proximity to
| |
| | people may be delegated to a life of
|
| inventors and specialists.The
| |
| | poverty, with no opportunity to work or
|
| establishment of technology parks could
| |
| | to develop South Africa's rich natural
|
| be instituted at the institution. Dana,
| |
| | resources for future
|
| et al. (2005:12) report that the first
| |
| | generations.ReferencesALI, Y. 2001. The
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| technology parks were established in the
| |
| | intranet and the management of making and
|
| Netherlands. It is hardly surprising
| |
| | using skills. Journal of Knowledge
|
| that the Netherlands is one of the
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| | Management, 5(4):338-348.BANDURA, A.
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| leading nations in promoting
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| | 1997. Self-efficacy: The exercise of
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| entrepreneurship, comparing favourably
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| | control. New York: W.H. Freeman &
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| with Israel, Singapore and Silicone
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| | Co.BOUSSOUARA, M. & DEAKINS, D. 1999.
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| Valley. Perhaps such parks could be
| |
| | Market-based learning, entrepreneurship
|
| established in conjunction with the
| |
| | and the high technology small firm.
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| government and serve to expose students
| |
| | International Journal of Entrepreneurial
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| to the entrepreneurial
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| | Behaviour & Research. 5(4):204-223.BROWN,
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| culture.Information networks connecting
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| | J.S. & DUGUID, P. 1991. Organisational
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| entrepreneurs to venture capitalists
| |
| | learning and community-of-practice;
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| should be established within the higher
| |
| | towards a unified view of working,
|
| education institution. Dushnitsky and
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| | learning and innovation. Organization
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| Lenox (2004:618) reinforce this view.
| |
| | Science, 2(1):40-57.DANA, L-P., KOROT, L.
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| Gregorio and Shane (2003:214) also
| |
| | & TOVSTIGA, G. 2005. A cross-national
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| recommend that in exchange for taking an
| |
| | comparison of knowledge management
|
| equity stake in TLO start-ups the
| |
| | practices. International Journal of
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| institution should pay patenting,
| |
| | Manpower, 26(1):10-22.DA RIN, M.,
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| marketing or other up-front costs. These
| |
| | NICODANO, G. & SEMBENELLI A. 2005.
|
| measures would encourage the formation of
| |
| | Public policy and the creation of active
|
| start-up enterprises. Furthermore,
| |
| | venture capital markets. Journal of
|
| locating a higher education institutional
| |
| | Public Economics. Article in
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| foundation presence in physical proximity
| |
| | press.DUSHNITSKY, G. & LENOX, M.J. 2005.
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| to the enterprises donating the capital
| |
| | When do incumbents learn from
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| might be an advantage (Gregorio & Shane,
| |
| | entrepreneurial ventures? Corporate
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| 2003:211).Strategy to develop an
| |
| | venture capital and investing firm
|
| entrepreneurial innovative
| |
| | innovation rates. Research Policy,
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| culture·Re-curriculation of syllabi
| |
| | 34:615-639.GREGORIO, D.D. & SHANE, S.
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| within Entrepreneurship programmesWhen
| |
| | 2003. Why do some universities generate
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| training entrepreneurs two realms of
| |
| | more start-ups than others? Research
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| knowledge should be recognized, "tacit"
| |
| | Policy, 32:209-227.GRUNDLING, J.P. &
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| and "explicit". "Explicit knowledge is
| |
| | STEYNBERG, L. 2006. MTech
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| easily identifiable, easy to articulate,
| |
| | Entrepreneurship, Entrepreneurial
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| capture and share. By contrast, tacit
| |
| | Techniques VA. Pretoria: Centre for
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| knowledge consists predominately of
| |
| | Entrepreneurship, Tshwane University of
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| intuition, feelings, perceptions and
| |
| | Technology.HARRIS, S., FORBES, T &
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| beliefs, often difficult to express and
| |
| | FLETCHER, M. 2000. Taught and enacted
|
| therefore difficult to capture and
| |
| | strategic approaches in young
|
| transfer. Of the two, tacit knowledge
| |
| | enterprises. International Journal of
|
| carries the greater value in that it is
| |
| | Entrepreneurial Behaviour & Research,
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| the essence of innovation" (Dana et al.,
| |
| | 6(3):125-145.IRELAND, R.D., KURATKO, D.F.
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| 2005:10). Perhaps an illustration given
| |
| | & AND MORRIS, M.H. 2006. A health audit
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| by Ali (2001:339) serves to illustrate
| |
| | for corporate entrepreneurship:
|
| the difference between the skills
| |
| | Innovation at all levels. Part 1.
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| involved in producing an artifact. The
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| | Journal of Business Strategy,
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| engineer is a man of action developing
| |
| | 27(1):10-17.JOHNSON, J.M.G. 1987.
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| mental skills but seldom having the
| |
| | Entrepreneurial intentions and outcomes:
|
| opportunity to develop manual skills.
| |
| | A comparative causal mapping study.
|
| The craftsman uses his hands more than
| |
| | Journal of Management Studies,
|
| his head, tools more than instruments and
| |
| | 34(6):895-920.LIN, B-W., LI, P-C. & CHEN,
|
| rarely uses science or mathematics. Both
| |
| | J.S. 2004. Social capital.
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| are geared towards inventing. The
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| | Capabilities, and entrepreneurial
|
| engineer is concerned with ideas and
| |
| | strategies: A study of Taiwanese
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| artifacts, while the craftsman is
| |
| | high-tech new ventures. Technological
|
| concerned with the making of artefacts.
| |
| | Forecasting and social change. Article
|
| The craftsman has no ready made methods
| |
| | in press.MARKMAN, G.D. & BARON, R.A.
|
| and the technique is devised during the
| |
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